ACCT and STAR Scholars Network are excited to release Global Snapshots: Models, Missions, and Challenges, the first volume in a new series of briefs Mapping Community Colleges Around the World: Comparative Perspectives and Collaborative Pathways.

Below, we present the first article in Global Snapshots, a worldwide survey of community college-like institutions—of which there are over 170 distinct types, all of which provide “access for nontraditional and marginalized students, flexible paths for learning, retooling for future jobs, and opportunities for lifelong learning,” according to authors Rosalind Latiner Raby, Ph.D. and Edward J. Valeau, Ed.D.

 The full brief profiles institutions in Colombia, Croatia, Malawi, Pakistan, South Africa, South Korea, Syria, and the United States.

Worldwide, there is a distinct postsecondary education sector, referred to here as the “college sector,” that provides access for nontraditional and marginalized students, flexible paths for learning, retooling for future jobs, and opportunities for lifelong learning.” Academic literature has recognized commonalities across this sector since the 1970s, including the level of education offered, broad missions and goals, curricular focus, and student body composition. While they share many common characteristics, there is substantial variation globally in terms of the names of institutions in this sector and their specific focus areas and programs. Today, over 170 distinct institutional types comprise the sector worldwide. Table 1 displays the 24 types that appear most often in the academic literature to date, although as societal and economic needs change, institutional names and types undoubtedly will continue to evolve as well.

This article presents a framework for understanding the commonalities that define the college sector and the challenges it currently faces. Our analysis is based on a review of 2,113 academic articles and 365 book chapters for a total of 2,478 sources. We note the absence of scholarship from some parts of the world and, thus, the absence of voices and perspectives that could impact the analysis. As scholars who have conducted research on higher education for 42 years, we also acknowledge that we are embedded in colonial systems and thus endeavor to use our research to counter systemic inequities.

Commonalities 

Our analysis indicates that colleges share five key commonalities: flexibility, accessibility, nontraditional student populations, local industry connections, and accreditation frameworks. While universities and other higher education institutions share some of these characteristics, the composite whole remains unique to the college sector. 

Flexibility 

Mission statements of colleges around the world focus on the need to meet local industry and community needs. As needs change, colleges must maintain flexibility to edit or change programming and curricula and to refocus their offerings on the next-level skills needed for emerging and future industries at the local and global levels. One area in which this flexibility is especially evident over time is the adoption of international education programs that aim to bring the world to a local context and prepare students to succeed in a global economy. In 1947, the Truman Commission Report (USA) validated U.S. community college internationalization. It encouraged program and curriculum changes, which have been undertaken by an increasing number of U.S. community colleges over the last few decades. Across the Atlantic, the European University Alliance includes 74 Centers for Vocational Excellence, housed at Universities of Applied Sciences throughout the region, which advance mobility, international development, and cross-national partnerships. 

Accessibility 

Colleges’ mission statements emphasize enabling access for marginalized students. Particular populations of focus vary by country and context. U.S. community colleges, Australian Technical and Further Education, and Israeli Academic Regional Colleges, for example, aim to provide educational opportunities to students who have traditionally been excluded from higher education in their contexts, including students from low-income backgrounds, adults, and immigrants. In many countries, colleges are strategically located geographically to maximize accessibility; Portugal’s Cursos Técnicos Superiores Profissionais, for instance, operate in rural locations, and Kenya’s TVET Colleges for blind and deaf students are located throughout the country. In a number of countries, colleges also serve as a gateway for access to universities and for further study via articulation agreements and pathway programs; this is the case for Hong Kong Community Colleges, some United Kingdom Colleges of Further Education, Japanese KOSEN Colleges of Technology, and Singapore Polytechnics. The EU Qualifications for Transfer Pathways and the Continental Education Strategy for Africa Pathway Programs also enable continued study upon completion of a college degree or other qualification. 

Student Populations 

Overall, the college sector serves a tremendous diversity of student populations. Colleges are the primary— and often most qualified—providers of postsecondary education for part-time, older, differently abled, first-generation, Indigenous, low-income, refugee, international, second-career, single parent, and adult students and those from other (dis)empowered groups. Given their flexible educational pathways and emphasis on career preparation, colleges are especially well suited to serve adult learners, which is reflected in enrollment data; the average age of TVET students in Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland, for example, is thirty-five.

Industry Connections 

Around the world, colleges work closely with local industries to determine the skills and competencies needed by employers. The curricular flexibility noted previously, combined with holistic, learner-centered teaching approaches, helps colleges prepare graduates both to fill current jobs and to adapt to new and emerging labor market demands over time. Industry collaboration is multifaceted and takes a variety of forms. For example, European TVET and Universities of Applied Sciences industry collaborations create microcredentials and service-learning options. Dual education models from Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland merge formal academics with internships, and colleges offer apprenticeships throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe. Although direct correlations are often difficult to document, research confirms that colleges contribute to increased human capacity, higher incomes, and overall socioeconomic growth in many countries and contexts. 

Accreditation 

Two primary types of accreditation frameworks guide the development of curricula, competency requirements, and learning outcomes for colleges worldwide: 

• National Qualification Frameworks (NQFs) apply to all postsecondary education institutions, including colleges. For example, TAFE institutions are included in Australia’s Qualification Framework, Polytechnics in Korea’s Academic Bank Credit System, TVET Colleges in the Malaysian Qualification Framework, New Vocational Colleges in the China 2019 project, and TVET institutions in the New Chile Law. 

• Regional qualification frameworks (RQFs) set standards for degrees and qualifications across geographic regions. The ASEAN Qualification Framework includes VET institutes and postsecondary polytechnics and colleges; Africa’s Agenda 2063 includes high-quality TVET centers; and the Caribbean Area Network for Quality Assurance in Tertiary Education (CANQATE) includes tertiary TVET institutes and community colleges.

Trends and Challenges 

Our review of the literature on the college sector highlights several key challenges facing systems and institutions  worldwide: 

• Despite reputational gains, a “deficit narrative” still persists around colleges in many countries. Labels such as sub-degree, third category, non-university, and second tier are ascribed to the sector, and minoritized students are stereotyped as having expectations of failure. 

• The colleges sector is in need of stronger leadership, better national planning, and more accountability to achieve sustainability and growth and to counter the persistent deficit narrative. In many countries, a lack of funding remains an ongoing problem and will require the reprioritization of resources at the national, regional and local levels. 

• In an era of globalization, international partnerships and collaboration within the colleges sector are expanding, which has many positive impacts on institutions and student learning. However, international cooperation must respect and preserve all local cultures and should be careful not to promote only or preferentially, for example, English or any other single language, and Westernized pedagogy. A primary value of international collaboration is benefiting drawing from and appealing to varied cultures. 

• Prestige-seeking and pressure for colleges to compete with other postsecondary education sectors for enrollment can result in shifts from short-cycle certificates to two-year associate degrees to Baccalaureate and Master’s degrees. In some cases, these shifts may lead to more selective enrollment, potentially undermining colleges’ access mission.

Conclusion 

The college sector has seen significant innovation and evolution over the last 150 years in terms of structure (types of institution), academic levels (secondary, sub-tertiary, and tertiary levels), mission (what is taught), access (who has it) and curricular focus (academic and vocational focus). However, colleges have yet to be sufficiently recognized for their contributions to global knowledge production and innovations that serve local communities. As highlighted in the articles throughout this brief, much more research on the sector is needed, starting with systematic collection of data on student outcomes. Of particular interest to the authors is the story of change resulting from educational borrowing, the social role of colleges in decolonization, and social equalization, whereby new opportunities define new possibilities for social change. 

References 

Legusov, O., Raby, L.R., Mou, L , Gómez-Gajardo, F., & Zhou, Y. (2021) How community colleges and other TVET institutions contribute to the United Nations sustainable development goals, Journal of Further and Higher Education. http:/www.doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1887463 

Maurer, M. (2021). The ‘recognition of prior learning’ in vocational education and training systems of lower and middle income countries: An analysis of the role of development cooperation in the diffusion of the concept. Research in Comparative and International Education. https://www.doi.org/10.1177/17454999211061244 

Moodie, G., Wheelahan, L., & Kost, J. (2024). Introduction to the special Issue. What do vocational colleges do and why do they matter? Journal of Vocational Education & Training. OnlineFirst. https://doi.org/10.1080/13636 820.2024.2447634 

Raby, R.L., & Valeau, E.J. (2009) Community college models: Globalization and higher education reform. Springer. 

Raby, R. L., & Valeu, E. J., (2018), Handbook of comparative studies on community colleges and global counterparts. Springer. https://doi.org.10.1007/978-3-319-50911-2 

Raby, R. L., & Valeau, E.J. (2022). Identity and invisibility in policy enterprises: Cases of community colleges and global counterparts. In G. A. Postiglione, C. Johnstone, & W. Teter. Handbook of Education Policy: International Perspectives (pp. 334-353). Edward Elgar. 

About the Authors

Dr. Rosalind Latiner Raby is a Senior Lecturer at California State University, Northridge in the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Department. She is Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Comparative and International Higher Education and is Director of California Colleges for International Education, a non-profit consortium of California community colleges. Since 1984, Dr. Raby has worked with and studied community college internationalization. Dr. Raby is highly published in over 55 academic journals and has published 15 books. 

Dr. Edward J. Valeau is Superintendent/President Emeritus of Hartnell Community College District and has more than 38 years of community college leadership experience. He was a member of Board of American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) and Chaired its International Education Commission. He is an American Council on Education Fellow, Fulbright Scholar, and recipient of the Buttimer Award for Outstanding Leadership as a CEO. He is widely published with the honored publication, A Practical Guide to Becoming a Community College President.

Photo by Nataliya Vaitkevich: https://www.pexels.com/photo/push-pins-on-a-globe-7236024/